THE  X^IGICALi^ 


PRESBYTERIAN    REVIEA¥r 


No.  21 —January,  1885. 

III. 

THE    DOUBLE    FUNCTION    OF    MUSIC    IN    THE 

CHURCH. 

THE  hereditary  ritual  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  this  country 
recognized  one  function  of  singing  in  divine  service,  and  only 
one.  This  function  was  that  of  a  vehicle  for  the  utterance  of  wor- 
ship by  the  united  voices  of  the  Christian  assembly,  in  literal  metri- 
cal versions  of  passages  of  holy  Scripture.  The  Presbyterian  rite 
excluded  all  "  human  composures  "  as  forms  of  prayer  and  praise, 
excepting  extemporaneous  composures.  Withal  it  had  no  place  for 
the  use  of  musical  instruments,  and  nothing  for  a  choir  to  do  apart 
from  the  people. 

This  ritual  was  established  and  defended  by  no  arguments  of  expe- 
diency, or  taste,  or  judgment  of  what  was  edifying.  It  was  founded 
jure  divino  on  a  theological  principle  which  was  thus  enunciated  : 
"nothing  may  be  added  in  the  worship  of  God,  as  parts  of  worship, 
but  what  is  prescribed  or  appointed  by  the  word  of  God."*  Any  de- 
parture from  this  principle  was  held  to  be  constructive  idolatry,  for- 
bidden by  implication  in  the  Second  Commandment.  The  principle, 
though  really  developed  by  the  exigencies  of  controversy  with  popery 
and  prelacy,  was  not  on  that  account  laid  down  with  a  less  confident 
dogmatism,  nor  applied  with  less  of  arbitrary  authority.  But  having 
outlasted  several  generations  of  strenuous  polemic,  it  came  at  last  (so 
far  as  the  main  body  of  American  Presbyterians  was  concerned)  to  a 
violent  death  in  the  struggle  that  ended  in  the  introduction  into  pub- 
lic worship  of  Dr.  Watts's  "  Imitation  of  the  Psalms  of  David  in  the 
language  of  the  New  Testament." 

We  listen  sometimes  with  wonder  and  sometimes  with  amusement 
to  traditionary  anecdotes  of  the  intense  animosities  incident  to  the 
introduction  of  that  new  psalm-book.  But  the  real  occasion  of  won- 
der is  that  the  animosities  were  not  far  more  intense  ;  for  that  change 
of  books  involved  a  theological  revolution.     The  action  of  the  Gen- 


*  Vincent's  Catechism,  LI.  Q.  9. 


70  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  REVIEW. 

eral  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  in  which  the  aid  of 
Timothy  Dwight  of  Yale  College  and  the  General  Association  of 
Connecticut  was  invoked  to  provide  a  suitable  "  system  of  public 
psalmody,"  with  the  later  vote  authorizing  the  use  of  Dwight's  book 
of  Psalms  and  Hymns,  was  the  definite  abandonment  of  a  dogma 
which,  through  the  storm  and  stress  of  many  a  controversy,  had  been 
counted  by  no  small  part  of  the  church  among  "the  fundamentals." 
This  barrier  being  taken  down,  free  course  was  made  for  other  inno- 
vations. With  Watts's  Psalms  and  Dwight's  collection  of  hymns, 
came  choirs,  elaborate  musical  compositions  practicable  for  choirs 
only,  and  finally  musical  instruments.  But  the  traditionary  ritual  of 
the  church,  constructed  originally  to  the  purposed  exclusion  of  all 
these,  underwent  no  deliberate  revision.  A  new  factor  had  entered 
into  the  construction  of  the  church  services,  but  no  place  nor  function 
was  assigned  to  it.  It  could  keep  its  place  only  by  crowding  out 
what  was  already  in  possession.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  many 
instances,  the  choir  simply  entered  into  Presbyterian  congregations 
and  took  the  place  which  had  been  the  people's. 

This  seems  strange  and  illogical  ;  and  it  is  illogical,  but  not  strange. 
It  would  have  been  quite  consistent  and  reasonable  for  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  having  squarely  repudiated  the  major  premise  on 
which  its  immemorial  controversy  with  the  liturgists  had  been  con- 
ducted, to  review  all  its  practice  as  deduced  from  that  premise,  and 
modify  it  accordingly.  But  such  a  course  at  that  time,  would  have 
been  impossible.  There  was  no  distinct,  intelligent  consciousness 
on  the  part  of  the  people  generally,  of  the  logical  consequences  of 
their  action  ;  and  if  there  had  been,  it  would  have  been  felt  how 
much  harder  it  is  to  change  a  habit  or  a  prejudice,  than  to  change  a 
dogma. 

Accordingly,  from  that  time  forward,  the  state  of  church  music  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church  has  been,  and  still  is,  that  of  unstable  equi- 
librium. Much  cost  of  labor  and  money  has  been  expended  from 
year  to  year  in  organizing  and  perfecting  the  choir,  and  in  constructing 
the  organ  and  providing  an  accomplished  organist,  and  when  all  is 
ready,  there  is  nothing  distinctly  assigned  to  this  expensive  organiza- 
tion to  do,  that  cannot  be  as  well  or  better  done  without  them.  The 
traditionary  ritual  provides  for  nothing  but  two  or  three  psalms;  and 
these  arc  taken  possession  of  by  the  choir  until  the  craving  need  of 
some  utterance  by  the  Christian  people  demands  them  back  again. 
The  difficulty  is  adjusted  by  some  sort  of  compromise,  parcelling  out 
one  hymn  to  one  party  and  one  to  another,  and  adding  an  "  opening 


DOUBLE  FUNCTION  OF  MUSIC  IN  THE  CHURCH.         71 

piece  "  at  the  beginning ;  or  quite  as  often  by  a  melancholy  effort  to 
fuse  both  the  functions  of  song  in  one  act,  by  a  vague  understand- 
ing that  choir  and  people  are  to  sing  together,  only  that  the  choir 
shall  not  sing  very  effectively,  nor  the  people  very  unanimously  nor 
heartily. 

Now  among  those  who  seriously  and  intelligently  study  the  subject 
of  church  music,  it  is  commonly  recognized,  I  think,  that  there  are 
two  wholly  distinct  functions  of  music  in  divine  service,  correspond- 
ing to  the  two  forms  of  choir  singing  and  congregational  singing ; 
that  music  is  good,  first,  as  a  means  of  uniting  the  voices  of  the  wor- 
shippers in  uttering  praise  to  God  ;  and  good,  secondly,  as  a  vehicle 
for  conveying  religious  truth  and  sentiment  to  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple as  listeners ;  that  it  is  good  for  «pression,  and  also  for  z;/zpres- 
sion.  It  is  generally  understood  and  admitted  among  such  persons, 
that  the  two  functions  which  appear  in  the  secular  applications  of  mu- 
sic, are  to  be  recognized  also  in  its  religious  applications ;  that  it  may 
belong  not  only  to  the  worship  of  the  church,  but  to  the  didactic  and 
hortatory  parts  of  its  services.  And  the  widely  different  principles 
which  govern  the  use  of  music  in  these  two  different  applications  are 
not  unknown  to  intelligent  critics.  An  ideal  system  of  church  music 
is  that  in  which  the  hearty,  simple,  unanimous  song  of  the  whole 
people  in  the  act  of  common  praise  becomes  all  the  more  significant 
and  delightful  by  contrast  with  the  act  of  the  choir  using  all  the  re- 
sources of  musical  composition,  with  the  utmost  efforts  of  studious 
skill,  to  impress  upon  the  silent  and  listening  people  the  meaning  of 
sacred  words — "  teaching and admonishing 'with  psalms  and  hymns  and 
spiritual  songs."  But  this  absolutely  vital  distinction,  however  clearly 
apprehended  by  a  few,  has  never  come  into  general  and  practical 
recognition.  And  until  it  is  recognized  and  acted  on,  any  large  im- 
provement in  church  music  is  not  to  be  hoped  for.  Once  clearly 
acknowledged,  it  will  compel  a  deliberate  revision  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  the  order  and  methods  of  public  worship  in  its  relations  to 
the  use  of  music. 

The  results  of  such  revision,  when  it  is  made,  will  not  be  capable 
of  being  summed  in  a  formula  of  general  application.  General  prin- 
ciples can  be  enunciated,  but  the  arrangement  of  details  must  needs 
vary  with  different  congregations.  The  attempt  to  bring  about  uni- 
formity of  use  in  a  matter  on  which  there  is  not  and  cannot  be  uni- 
formity of  conditions,  but  where  there  must  always  be  a  wide 
diversity  of  culture,  taste,  habits,  and  resources,  can  do  nothing  but 
mischief. 

What  a  very  fine   thing  it  would  be,  if  the  Board   of  Publication 


72  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  REVIEW. 

of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  U.  S.  A.,  would  only  issue  (by  a  duly 
authorized  Committee)  a  series  of  working  drawings  for  a  meeting- 
house, and  then  try  to  have  all  future  Presbyterian  churches,  large 
and  small,  cheap  and  costly,  built  after  that  pattern  !  It  is  just  so 
wise  exactly  for  this  same  Board  to  prepare  a  body  of  church  music 
to  be  used  alike  by  congregations  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  of  all 
grades  of  taste,  culture,  and  resources.  In  the  nature  of  the  case, 
the  book  which  will  be  tolerably  good  for  some  of  these  congrega- 
tions will  be  intolerable  for  others ;  and  neither  the  compiler  nor  the 
Board  will  be  to  blame  for  it,  but  only  the  utterly  impracticable  idea 
which  it  is  attempted  to  realize.  The  only  course  to  be  followed,  in 
such  a  case,  is  to  adapt  the  book  to  somebody's  conception  of  the 
average  taste  of  the  Presbyterian  congregation,  take  it  by  small  and 
large ;  and  nobody  will  conceive  that  this  average  is  a  high  one. 
Consequently  a  book  of  music  fitted  to  be  acceptable  and  useful 
in  the  average  church,  is  an  incubus  under  which  some  other 
churches  groan  being  burdened.  The  spiritual  edification,  the 
enjoyment  in  worship,  and  the  material  growth  and  prosperity,  of 
some  of  the  more  cultivated  Presbyterian  congregations  are  suffering 
from  year  to  year  from  their  being  loaded  with  a  system  of  psalmody 
that  is  levelled  down  to  the  general  average  of  the  churches,  North, 
South,  and  West.  If  the  tune-book  were  adapted,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  the  congregations  of  higher  musical  culture,  it  would  be  a  burden 
to  the  others.  In  either  case,  this  ambition  for  a  sectarian  uniformity 
of  use,  in  a  matter  of  taste  in  which  there  is  no  uniformity  of  condi- 
tions, is  pursued  to  the  serious  detriment  of  individual  congregations, 
and  is  pursued  in  vain,  after  all ;  for  the  uniformity  is  not  secured. 

Not  only  the  selection  of  music,  but,  in  general,  all  the  details  of 
the  order  of  worshipwith  reference  to  the  uses  of  music,  ought  freely 
to  vary  with  the  varying  requirements  of  the  particular  congregation  ; 
from  the  simplicity  of  those  congregations  in  which  nothing  is  used 
but  plain  psalmody  sung  by  the  whole  people,  to  those  in  which, 
with  cost,  study  and  labor,  the  resources  of  sacred  art  are  largely 
drawn  upon.  But  in  speaking  of  those  congregations  in  which  good 
choirs  sing  good  music,  there  are  some  principles  to  be  suggested 
that  are  of  general  application. 

(i.)  It  is  most  undesirable  to  find  use  for  the  choir  by  dividing  the 
psalmody  between  choir  and  congregation.  The  characteristic,  histori- 
cal purpose  and  use  of  metrical  psalms  and  hymns,  in  modern  Chris- 
tendom, is  for  the  folk-song  of  the  church.  The  feeblest  form  of  choir 
music  extant,  is  that  which  is  known  in  America  (though  hardly  known 
at  all  elsewhere)  as  the  "  Hymn  by  the  Choir."     The  habit  of  seques- 


DOUBLE  FUNCTION  OF  MUSIC  IN  THE  CHURCH.         73 

tratingsome  hymns  in  the  service  for  the  honors  of  a  more  exquisite 
performance,  tends  to  break  the  habit  of  simple,  unanimous  psalmody 
by  the  whole  people.  It  is  much  better  that  the  announcement  of  a 
hymn  should  be  always  the  signal  to  bring  the  whole  assembly  to  its 
feet  in  an  act  of  common  worship. 

This  understanding  ought  to  relieve  the  choir  of  the  useless  bore 
of  rehearsing  six  bits  of  plain  psalmody  every  Saturday  night.  Good 
psalmody,  with  a  choir  of  the  least  skill,  and  a  congregation  of  fair 
musical  capacity,  needs  no  rehearsal.  It  is  better  without  it.  Prop- 
erly led  by  the  organist  and  choir-master  or  precentor,  it  goes  of  itself. 
To  set  the  choir  practicing  a  people's  hymn  is  only  to  tempt  it  into 
certain  choir  "effects"  which  may,  or  may  not,  be  good  and  useful  in 
their  place,  but  are  merely  distracting  in  the  act  of  worship. 

But  the  minister  and  organist  cannot  be  too  studious  of  the  hymn 
and  tune  book — the  minister  to  guide  his  selections  with  reference  to 
tune  as  well  as  hymn  ;  and  the  organist  to  have  his  copy  well  anno- 
tated with  reference  to  movement  and  registration. 

Beside  metrical  psalmody,  the  congregation  may  easily  have  much 
enjoyment  in  the  chanting  of  psalms,  if  the  selections  for  this  pur- 
pose are  few  in  number  and  return  frequently  in  routine.  Ten  selec- 
tions, assigned  for  morning  and  evening  worship  on  each  of  the  Sun- 
days of  the  month,  in  regular  recurrence,  give  variety  enough  and  not 
too  much  ;  and  the  utterance  of  the  words  together  having  once  been 
learned,  the  chant-music  may  be  changed  freely. 

So  much  for  the  exercises  of  the  congregational  singing,  which 
ought  to  be  not  less  frequent,  but  more  frequent,  than  is  now  com- 
mon. 

(2.)  Coming  now  to  the  question  what  duties,  in  the  order  of  public 
worship,  shall  be  assigned  to  the  choir,  the  first  consideration  to  be 
had  is  that  these_duties  shall^be  prescribed  definitely  and  with  some 
intelligible  reason.  This  excludes,  at  the  outset,  that  which,  in  the 
too  prevalent  no-particular-order  of  church  worship,  is  the  horror  of 
people  of  devout  taste,  and  the  embarrassment  of  every  serious  and 
conscientious  church  musician — I  mean  the  "  Voluntary  by  the  choir," 
that  is,  that  at  a  certain  point  in  the  order  of  service,  at  the  begin- 
ning or  elsewhere,  the  choir  shall  sing  "  something"  without  any  par- 
ticular reference  to  the  meaning  or  fitness  of  it,  except  that  the 
words,  so  far  as  they  are  understood,  shall  have  a  pious  sort  of  sound, 
and  not  contain  anything  unsuitable.  O,  the  frightful  rubbish  that  u 
is  sometimes  sung  in  Presbyterian  churches,  when  the  choir  are  thus  %* 
turned  loose  upon  the  people !  And  who  is  to  blame  for  it,  but  the 
church  that  sets  them  up  with  an  organ  and  with   salaries,  and  with 


\ 


74  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  REVIEW. 

general  orders  to  sing  something,  and  no  distinct  and  rigorous  instruc- 
tions what  to  sing?  How  does  a  public  speaker  like  it,  to  be  asked  to 
say  something  for  about  five  minutes  with  no  particular  reference  to 
any  particular  subject  or  any  particular  object,  but  only  to  make  him- 
self interesting?  The  chances  are,  in  that  case,  that  he  utters  a  lot 
of  precious  nonsense;  and  that  is  just  what  the  choir  does  in  the  like 
case. 

As  to  the  musical  forms  best  suited  to  the  use  of  choirs  in  Presby- 
terian churches,  the  most  considerable  is  the  Anthem.  This  word  is 
often  used,  in  a  loose  sense,  to  mean  almost  any  vocal  composition 
for  the  church  except  a  psalm-tune,  a  chant,  or  a  "  spiritual  song." 
The  Anthem  properly  so-called,  the  large  and  ample  illustration,  in 
successive  movements,  of  a  passage  of  Holy  Scripture,  is  not  much 
known  in  Presbyterian  churches  in  America.  It  is  a  noble  musical 
form,  which  has  employed  the  best  genius  of  Christian  composers,  in 
works  some  of  which  may  task  the  best  skill  of  any  choir.  It  is  the 
sermon  of  the  service  of  song,  and  when  the  musical  superfluities  with 
which  our  worship  is  now  incumbered  are  eliminated,  it  ought  to  have 
a  worthy  place,  if  not  for  every  Sunday,  at  least  for  frequent  use  in 
the  Lord's  house,  wherever  there  are  choirs  competent  to  such  high 
work. 

But  a  simpler,  more  generally  useful  musical  form  for  choirs,  is 
the  Scriptural  Sentence.  And  when  the  place  of  this  in  the  service 
is  wisely  fixed  and  the  character  of  it  defined,  it  may  be  in  the  highest 
degree  conducive  to  spiritual  edification.  The  supply  of  good  com- 
positions in  this  form  is  not  large  at  present  ;  but  there  is  no  other 
reason  why,  in  a  well-ordered  system  of  worship,  it  should  not  become 
at  once  the  best  common  form  of  choir-music. 

(3.)  After  a  somewhat  definite  notion  has  been  gained  as  to  what 
the  parts  of  public  worship  are  to  be,  in  a  service  in  which  the  two 
functions  of  music  are  both  to  be  employed,  the  proper  ordering  of 
these  parts  into  a  whole  is  not  so  easy  a  matter  as  it  seems  to  those 
who  have  never  seriously  studied  it.  The  average  minister,  so  far  as 
I  have  made  his  acquaintance,  thinks  it  only  a  matter  of  a  few  minutes 
and  a  half-sheet  of  sermon-paper  to  make  out  an  "  Order  of 
Service,"  to  be  pinned  up  inside  of  the  pulpit,  that  will  be  just  as  good 
as  the  next  one — -here  a  prayer,  and  there  a  hymn,  and  there  a 
chapter,  and  somewhere  a  chance  for  the  choir  to  sing  "  something  "; 
these  for  "  the  preliminaries"  to  the  Sermon,  and  a  little  more  for  a 
snapper  at  the  end  of  it.  But  in  fact  the  pastor  who,  within  those 
two  canons  of  the  New  Testament  "  Directory  of  Worship  " — "  All 
things  to  edifying,"  and  "All  things  decently  and  in  order" — shall 


DOUBLE  FUNCTION  OF  MUSIC  IN  THE  CHURCH.         75 

construct  and  put  into  becoming  language  and  shape  (which  is  not  the 
shape  of  a  concert-programme)  a  good  Order  of  Worship  for  his  church, 
will  find  it  as  hard  and  as  useful  a  week's  work  as  the  best  sermon  that 
he  ever  wrote. 

Among  the  principles  which  he  will  need  to  keep  in  mind  are  these : 

(i.)  Any  change  in  customary  habits  and  usages  of  public  worship 
in  a  particular  congregation  is,  in  itself  considered,  an  evil,  even  when 
it  is  a  necessary  evil.  Therefore  the  existing  usage  of  worship,  in 
any  place,  should  be  the  basis  of  the  new  order,  to  be  departed  from 
only  for  good  reason— a  principle  which  some  neglecting,  have  failed. 

(2.)  In  the  successive  offices  of  worship  there  must  be  a  studied 
alternation  and  variety,  to  engage  the  attention  and  sustain  the  interest 
of  the  people,  old  and  young,  and  to  relieve  the  fatigue  of  the  feeble. 
This  principle  is  violated,  when  (for  instance)  the  singing  of  a  psalm 
is  immediately  followed  by  the  responsive  reading  of  a  psalm  ;  or 
when  the  song  of  the  people  comes  just  before,  or  just  after,  the  song 
of  the  choir. 

(3.)  But,  far  more  important  than  this,  there  needs  to  be  an  intel- 
ligible consecutiveness  and  progress  in  the  order  of  service,  that  the 
worship  of  Christ's  house  may  be,  as  the  word  of  the  Scripture  requires, 
a  "  logical  service  " — rationabilc  obscquium.  If  the  act  of  Confession 
has  place  at  the  beginning  of  worship,  with  Invocation  of  Pardon  and 
Grace ;  then  let  there  be  no  vain  repetition  of  it  later  on.  If  Thanks- 
giving for  Mercies  is  part  of  the  General  Prayer,  then  let  it  not  be 
anticipated  in  the  Prayer  of  Invocation.  It  tends  "  to  edifying  "  when 
the  "  ministered  unto,"  as  well  as  the  minister,  are  conscious  of  the 
progress  and  connection,  and  customary  method  of  the  service. 
Whether  those  things  which  ought  to  be  of  constant  recurrence  in 
every  service  may  not  advantageously  find  expression  in  recurrent 
forms,  is  a  question  on  which  Presbyterians  are  divided,  and  which  is 
well  worthy  of  study,  but  is  aside  from  the  special  purpose  of  this 
paper. 

Now,  for  more  distinct  illustration  of  these  observations,  and  to 
bring  them  to  practical  point,  let  me  propose  an  order  of  morning 
worship,  not  as  adapted  to  all  churches,  but  as  suited  to  some  of  those 
in  which  choir-music  is  used. 

After  the  organ  prelude,  the  congregation  rise  and  sing  a  Doxology  (either  the  Gloria 
Patri  or  Bishop  Ken's  version). 

Then  a  prayer  of  Confession  and  Invocation  is  offered,  followed  by  The  Lord ' s  Prayer 
said  by  all  the  people  ;  and  this  by  a  Sentence  out  of  the  promises  of  Holy  Scripture  to. 
the  penitent  and  believing,  sung  by  a  choir. 

Then  an  Invitation  to  Praise  is  read  from  the  Scriptures,  and  the  people  chant  a 
Psalm. 


76  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  REVIEW. 

Lessons  are  then  read  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  if  there  is  to  be  an 
Anthem,  it  is  sung  between  the  two  Lessons. 

After  the  Lessons  comes  a  Hymn  ;  and  then  Prayer. 

Then  the  Weekly  Offering  is  received,  during  which  Sentences  of  Scripture,  suitable  to 
this  use,  may  be  sung  by  the  choir.  And  after  the  necessary  Notices  have  been  given,  a 
Hymn  is  sung. 

Then  follow  the  Sermon,  Prayer,  a  Hymn,  and  a  Benediction. 

This  order  is  not  proposed  as  an  ideal  one,  but  as  a  good  one  for 
some  churches.  The  question  is  how  to  provide  for  the  Double 
Function  of  Music  in  a  certain  church,  without  needless  disturbance 
of  its  existing  usage.  According  to  this  order,  the  people  sing  five 
times,  and  say  together  the  Lord's  Prayer;  the  choir  sing  a  brief  Sen- 
tence, an  Anthem,  and  "  offertory  sentences  ";  and  yet  the  service  is 
not  longer  than  in  other  churches. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  making  time  for  a  rich,  varied,  animated 
service  of  worship,  by  pruning  away  superfluities  that  have  no  use 
except  to  take  up  time,  or  to  give  the  high-priced  organist  and  choir 
an  opportunity  to  do  something  for  their  money.  Such,  for  example, 
are  the  following :  I.  The  reading  of  hymns — a  survival  from  the 
days  when  books  were  few ;  2,  the  organ  interludes  between  stanzas ; 
3,  the  "  giving  out  "  of  the  tune  before  singing, — properly  obsolete, 
except  in  the  case  of  new  tunes,  since  hymn  and  tune  books  came  into 
use.  By  omitting  these,  "giving  out"  the  tune  only  by  its  opening 
phrase ;  by  disusing  the  old-fashioned  drawling,  or  florid,  or  repeti- 
tious "  choir  tunes,"  in  favor  of  the  simple  and  animated  people's 
tunes  ;  and  by  the  use  of  wall-tablets  (almost  universal  in  Presbyte- 
rian churches  abroad),  for  announcing  the  hymns,  so  that  there  may  be 
no  hitch  nor  delay  between  the  parts  of  service,  the  order  of  worship 
may  be  greatly  varied  and  enriched,  while  the  course  of  it  will  flow 
freely  and  unbroken,  without  weariness  or  loss  of  interest  on  the  part 
of  those  participating. 

Leonard  Woolsey  Bacon. 

Philadelphia. 


